Introduction:
Wars, natural disasters, drugs, corruption, and all sorts of evil are not new. It seems that throughout the ages, these events have followed a repeated cycle that humanity cannot avoid until the Lord comes. Just this year, 2025, in the month of May, UNICEF reported that approximately 50,000 children were killed or injured in the Gaza Strip alone. There were cases of burned bodies and dismembered children being pulled from the rubble of their homes. Images circulated of a small child trapped in a burning school in Gaza. That attack, in the early hours of the morning, reportedly killed at least 31 people, including 18 children.1
If I may ask whether these attacks were evil, my answer would be a plain yes. Why? Simply because these people murdered others, and murder is a clear violation of the sixth commandment and besides it brings pain, distress, and suffering (Exod 20:13).
But how about people who die because of earthquakes, floods, or other natural disasters—can we consider these evil? According to the Society for Research in Child Development, every year 175 million children globally are expected to be affected by natural disasters, including floods, cyclones, droughts, heatwaves, severe storms, and earthquakes.2 Children are particularly vulnerable during such disasters and often experience increased problems in their physical health, mental health, and learning after exposure.3
Again, are natural disasters evil? I would say yes, as Scripture considers natural disasters to be evil (Isa 45:7; Amos 3:6; Joel 1:15; Exod 10–14). However, categorically, evil caused by natural disasters and evil caused by Satan and men are different. According to the Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, these two types of evil are classified as moral evil (which they call “bad”) and natural evil (which they call “harmful”). Natural evil, although distinct, is not separate from moral evil. According to the Bible, natural evil is often the consequence of moral evil.4
Now, the question I want to discuss in this writing is: Where is God in all of these evil things, both moral and natural? What is He doing when children are being murdered by bullets? Why would He allow a one-year-old baby to drown in a flood or be buried under rubble from an earthquake? These are common questions wrestled with by theologians throughout the ages. Though it may appear that the topic is about Theodicy, my paper is centered around God’s providence amidst evil.
Now, if God exists, there are only two possible explanations that could make sense of all evil. First, God exists but simply allows free creatures to act as they wish, and by chance, evil occurs. Second, if God exists, by His providence, He allows evil to exist for a specific purpose and a greater end goal.
There are several points I need to discuss to make sense of God’s providence in the midst of evil. First, we need to define what providence is. Second, we will examine whether everything that happens is caused by God’s providence or by chance. Lastly, we will discuss and reconcile God’s providence in the midst of the two types of evil: natural and moral evil.
What is Providence?
The word providence is one of those terms that does not occur in the Bible but nevertheless accurately represents a biblical doctrine. Though the word providence is not explicitly mentioned in Scripture, the concept of providence is clearly written throughout it. The Scriptures describe it through ad hoc expressions such as, “He gives food to every creature” (Ps 136:25), or when Jesus says the Father feeds the birds (Matt 6:26).5
According to John Murray, providence is “that marvelous working of God by which all the events and happenings in His universe accomplish the purpose He has in mind.”6 I fully agree with this definition. It shows how God is at work in every event, age, and place, and that He actively governs every activity of His creation. God is not passive, leaving everything to finite creatures; rather, He controls all operations ongoing in His creation.
In support of this, the 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith, Chapter 5, Paragraph 1, is particularly clear. It states:
“God, the good Creator of all things, in His infinite power and wisdom, upholds, directs, arranges, and governs all creatures and things, from the greatest to the least, by His perfectly wise and holy providence, to the purpose for which they were created.”7
There is no doubt that God is the Creator of all things, and He created everything by His Word (Gen 1:1; Ps 33:9). The God who is the Creator possesses infinite wisdom and power. He sovereignly rules and controls everything, from the smallest detail to the most complex. God’s providence plays a central role in every event and happening in creation.
Notice the definitions provided by John Murray and the London Baptist Confession of Faith: God’s providence has a purpose, and that purpose resides in the mind of God. This raises the question: Is God’s decree the same as God’s providence? Sam Waldron explains, “The decree is the blueprint or plan.8 Providence carries out the blueprint or plan by guiding the actual course of history.” According to Waldron, the decree is like a blueprint—God, the Creator with infinite wisdom and power, already has a plan in mind. While that plan is being executed throughout history, God’s providence is actively at work. He adds, “The decree takes place in eternity. Providence takes place in history.”
In short, God’s providence is how He carries out His work throughout the events of history. This shows that the God of Scripture did not simply create the world and then leave it to function on its own. Providence, if I may summarize, is God’s active work, executed in every detail and in every age, to fulfill His purpose.
Some may object, saying that what happens in the world is not God’s providence but merely chance or random occurrences in nature. In the next section, we will briefly discuss chance versus God’s providence.
Providence or Chance
King Ahab is one of the most notorious kings in the Old Testament. After his marriage to the Phoenician princess Jezebel, Ahab promoted Baal worship as the official religion of the northern kingdom (1 Kings 21:25–26). In 1 Kings 22:34, during a battle, King Ahab attempted to escape being killed by disguising himself and giving his royal robe to Jehoshaphat. The king of Syria had commanded the thirty-two captains of his chariots to target and kill the king. However, Jehoshaphat cried out, and by God’s providence, the captains realized that Ahab was not who they were pursuing and stopped chasing him. Yet, in verse 34, a certain man drew his bow at random and struck the king. Remarkably, though the bow appeared to be drawn randomly, it hit Ahab precisely between the scale armor and the breastplate, killing him (1 Kings 22:30–34).
This raises an important question: Was King Ahab’s death a matter of chance, the result of a random arrow shot, or was it the providential work of God controlling every detail of the event? Some may argue that it was simply bad luck. However, when we carefully examine the narrative—from the Syrian king’s command to target Ahab, to Jehoshaphat’s cry, and finally to the arrow striking precisely where Ahab’s armor offered no protection—we see clear evidence of God’s providential control. God orchestrated every detail to bring righteous judgment upon the evil king. The proof lies in 1 Kings 21. The Lord, through the prophet Elijah, had declared that He would bring judgment upon King Ahab in a severe and inescapable manner. Scripture says:
1 Kings 21:19: “And you shall say to him, ‘Thus says the LORD, “Have you killed and also taken possession?”’ And you shall say to him, ‘Thus says the LORD: “In the place where dogs licked up the blood of Naboth shall dogs lick your own blood.”’”
Here, we see God’s plan executed through means. God uses what theologians call “secondary causes,” such as the soldier drawing the arrow, to accomplish His purposes. John Gill, in his commentary on this chapter, observes:
“God directed the arrow to the man He had marked for destruction, and neither his disguise nor coat of mail could protect him. Though the pieces of armor on him were joined as closely as possible, yet the arrow, guided by divine Providence, found its way into his body.”9
The narrative may appear to describe chance or accident, but in reality, God’s providence was at work, and it had a clear purpose. Throughout Scripture, God’s providence is evident, even in the Old Testament. As the Creator, His providence is consistent with His act of creation. Athenagoras of Athens rightly observes that it would be contradictory to believe in creation while rejecting providence: if God created all things, His care extends without mediation to every event that occurs.10
Some may ask whether chance or accidents exist. According to Dariusz Lukas, “chance” can refer to several concepts: pure chance (an event lacking any detectable cause), non-intentional chance (an unintended event), epistemic chance (an event unpredictable by any mind), teleological chance (a purposeless event), and probabilistic chance (an event with low probability)11. While these definitions clarify the concept of chance, I do not believe the God of the universe allows truly random events. As Isaiah 46:10 declares:
“Declaring the end from the beginning, and from ancient times things not yet done, saying, ‘My counsel shall stand, and I will accomplish all my purpose.’”
The doctrine of providence teaches that the world and our lives are not governed by chance or fate, but by God, who reveals His purposes most fully in the incarnation of His Son.12
In summary, chance might exist if God were an impersonal deity, like the pantheistic gods, or if He were a dualistic god who does not control everything. However, the God we worship is personal, sovereign, and actively involved in His creation. As Proverbs 16:33 affirms:
“The lot is cast into the lap, but its every decision is from the LORD.”
This is the God we serve. He holds everything in His hands, controls all events, and arranges all things beautifully according to His infinite wisdom and power.
Providence and Evil
A. Natural Evil and God’s providence
In our introduction, we already defined the distinction of the so-called two evils. Again, natural evil is caused by nature, such as sickness and natural phenomena. It is called evil because it causes pain, distress, and death.13 In Scripture, natural evil is not out of God’s control; in fact, these types of evil are controlled by God. He explicitly said that He formed it. In Isaiah 45:7, the Lord said that He created this so-called evil. This is what He said: Isa 45:7: "I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the LORD do all these things.” (KJV)
We may ask, what? Is God the author of evil? Wait, let us define here first the meaning of “evil” in this verse. Clearly and contextually, the verse doesn’t talk about moral evil but natural evil. He is talking about His creation, and part of His creation is the evil caused by nature, not the evil caused by humans’ disobedience of God’s moral law. Furthermore, we will look at how God’s providence makes sense of these types of evil. Scripture is plainly clear that it is God who sovereignly takes control of natural evil. First, let us examine: what was the first natural evil recorded? And secondly, why did God allow natural evil?
To answer the first question: natural evil, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, typhoons, and other natural disasters, by their very nature ‘grind on remorselessly,’ so to speak, taking no account of our comfort or convenience.14 So to speak, these so-called natural laws or evils do not care about what you feel, nor your status in life. In other words, these natural evils caused by natural law, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, and typhoons, do not have any mind or emotion. Something that has mind, will, and emotion must have control over it, and there is no one who can do that but God alone. Rabbi Kushner’s statement, I believe, is on point when he says that these natural evils are simply an act of nature—a morally blind nature that churns along following its own laws.15 For these types of natural evil, there is one recorded event, actually the very first recorded event of natural evil, wherein God providentially sent a flood. And the reason why? Because humans were evil (Gen 6:5).
Scientifically, raindrops happen when clouds release the water vapor that develops when air masses travel over warm water bodies or over wet land surfaces. Atmospheric turbulence and convection carry the moisture upward into air masses where it forms clouds.16 Though science can find the cause of raindrops, we cannot deny the fact that it is God who is the primary cause of the rain that fell for forty days and forty nights (Gen 7:12,17). That is the reason why I agree with the 1689 LBCF Confession, Chapter 5, Paragraph 3, wherein the framers said that in His providence, God makes use of means, though He is free to work apart from them, beyond them, and contrary to them at His pleasure.17 So, to answer the first question, what was the first natural evil recorded? We may say that it happened during the time of Noah; however, we cannot deny the fact that the root of these kinds of evil is sin. Now, why does God, in His providence, sovereignly use natural evil as a means? Before I answer this question, we need to determine the extent of God’s governing activity, especially in nature. Millard Erickson said that God is described as controlling nature so much that its elements are personified as obeying His voice. In the Psalms, the praise of God often takes the form of extolling His power over nature. The psalmist said in Psalm 135:5–7:
“For I know that the LORD is great, and that our Lord is above all gods. Whatever the LORD pleases, He does, in heaven and on earth, in the seas and all deeps. He it is who makes the clouds rise at the end of the earth, who makes lightnings for the rain and brings forth the wind from His storehouses.”18
The Lord Jesus even claimed that it is God who makes the sun rise and sends the rain both to the evil and to the good (Matt 5:45). God, in the days of Noah, poured out rain for forty days and forty nights. He also caused it not to rain except by the Word of God for three and a half years. The Lord Jesus even has the power to control nature when He calms the sea from a raging storm (Mark 4:39). Notice the common reason why God uses these means: it is to display His glory by providing security and preservation to His people and imposing judgment on the wicked. While it is true that natural evil sometimes breaks our hearts and causes so much grief to others, we must also consider that in the midst of all these evils caused by nature, God is in control. As Jerry Bridges said:
“The first thing we have to do in order to trust God is determine if God is in control, if He is sovereign over the physical area of our lives. If He is not—if illness and afflictions ‘just happen’—then, of course, there is no basis for trusting God. But if God is sovereign in this area, then we can trust Him without understanding all the theological issues involved in the problem of pain.”19
B. Moral Evil and God’s providence
In Exodus chapter 1, Pharaoh ordered the killing of innocent children; all Hebrew male babies were to be killed. However, there was a baby who was kept inside a basket floating into the river, going to the place where Pharaoh’s daughter lived. The truth here is that there is so much evil in this narrative. Many innocent children were killed—children who did not even know how to speak or walk. Another story that puzzled me during my early years in Christianity is when Joshua destroyed all men, women, and all sheep as commanded by God (Joshua 6:21). Why did God do that? Why did He allow such evil to happen? This is the problem that most theologians face—the problem of evil.
In this section, we will not deal much with answering the problem of evil, for it is discussed in other studies such as theodicy. However, theodicy, I believe, cannot be separated, for they both touch on the sovereignty of God, especially even in the midst of evil. Now, what is theodicy? It came from the Greek words Theos (God) and dike (justice); it is an attempt to justify God’s ways to humans. A successful theodicy resolves the problem of evil for a theological system and demonstrates that God is all-powerful, all-loving, and just despite evil’s existence.20 Theologians must have a deeper knowledge of theodicy, for many argue that not only is there little reason to suppose that the God of classical monotheism exists, but the sheer quantity of evil that exists provides us with overwhelming empirical evidence that He does not. According to Stephen Law, most atheists believe that theists who maintain that belief in God, if not proved, is at least not unreasonable, are mistaken.21 First of all, I disagree with his statement that theist belief lacks evidence of God’s existence. I mean, look at nature—the trees, beaches, and heavens. That alone is enough evidence of the Creator. Secondly, the way humans think, the way we reason, is one proof that God exists, for that cannot be supported by a meaningless creator and chance. Someone with infinite wisdom can only provide this product such as humanity (Psalms 92:5).
Now, when it comes to moral evil—evil caused by disobedience and breaking God’s moral standard—I can only argue that all of these were caused by the sinful act of disobedience in the Garden of Eden.22 Though God is the first cause of everything, as most confessional and Reformed theologians hold, for it is God who unchangeably brings to pass all things in relation to His foreknowledge and decree, we cannot deny that it is still free creatures—their decisions and their will—as the second cause who willingly submit to such evil.23 When it comes to the providence of God in the midst of moral evil, I have two main proposals to understand God’s working amid it. First is the decree of God, and secondly, the covenant of God with man.
Now, to discuss the first proposal, which is God’s decree and its relationship with His providence amid moral evil, I would like to briefly summarize first the three different theological systems and how God works in each of these systems when it comes to His decree.
First is Free Will Theism. This theological system holds that God has gifted some of His creatures with libertarian free will, and God’s decisions concerning how He will respond to His creatures at each stage of the temporal process are based on what has occurred up until that stage of the process and not on knowledge of free choices that will occur subsequently. William Hasker comments that God’s decision to confront a free creature with a particular choice does not rest on prior knowledge of how the creature will respond.24 Basically, this system considers that God relies more on human free will before making decisions, rather than sovereignly governing and controlling the universe. The second theological system is called Molinism. It was developed by Luis de Molina, a Jesuit theologian. Molinism designates the theory of middle knowledge. Molina’s theory hinges on certain propositions currently known as “counterfactuals of freedom,” propositions which specify, concerning every actual or possible created free agent. In Molinism, though humans have the will and make any possible choices, God knows exactly what choice would be made, and so He knows, prior to any decisions of His own concerning His actions in creation and providence, exactly what the consequences would be of His making and carrying out any such decision.25 So, in my understanding, Molinism is a system in which God knows all possible choices of His creation and then actualizes the world with His providence. Though this system does not violate the freedom of man, still, in my point of view, God’s decision is still solely based on human choices. The last system that I propose is what Reformed theologians call divine determinism and compatibilism. Determinism is the view that all events happen inevitably,26 that God has decreed all things whatsoever comes to pass. Meaning, all things happen because God decreed them. Now, don’t get me wrong—though God decreed everything, He is not the author of evil. Thomas Aquinas has a comment regarding God's will; he said, "The will never aims at evil without some error existing in the reason, at least with respect to a particular object of choice. For since the object of the will is the apprehended good, the will cannot aim at evil unless, in some way, it is proposed to it as a good; and this cannot take place without error. But in the divine knowledge, there cannot be error... God's will cannot, therefore, tend toward evil."27 God's choice is always perfect and in line with His holy character. This is what secures me as one of His creations, that when He decrees something, the outcome is always good, even if it appears evil from my end. In the story of baby Moses, we cannot argue that a lot of evil happened, but God, in His providence, showed His faithfulness to His people by providing a basket in which he was placed for safety traveling down the river to Pharaoh's daughter. What is the outcome? This baby, by God's decree, became the instrument for the salvation of the Israelites from slavery. Compatibilism, on the one hand, shows that God's decree is compatible with the free will of men,28 which means that humanity is responsible for every decision it makes. Unlike Molinism and Free Will theism, this third theological system secures that nothing conditions God's decree.29 Personally, I agree with divine compatibilism for the reason that God holds and controls everything, that no one can condition His decree, and since He is good and holy, His providence throughout the history of His eternal decree is also holy and good. Another reason why I agree with compatibilism is that we humans are responsible for every action that we take, so we cannot blame God for the evil that humanity has done. That is the very reason the Scripture boldly exhorts us through Joseph's story, wherein he says, "As for you, you meant evil against me, but God meant it for good, to bring it about that many people should be kept alive, as they are today." (Gen 50:20).
The second proposal is God's covenant. Now we may ask what the relationship of His covenant is to His providence amidst moral evil. A covenant is a compact or agreement between two parties, binding them mutually to undertakings on each other's behalf.30 In the Scripture, the very first covenant God made with humanity was to not eat from the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for if they eat it, they will surely die (Gen 2:16-17). From my point of view, this is the entry point of humanity's moral evil; Satan's deception leading to the disobedience of the first humans makes the world fall into immorality. Here we notice that from the very start of God's creation, God provided all the means for the world to function perfectly, and in His providence, established that specific tree of the knowledge of good and evil to create a covenant with His free creatures. We can see that humanity failed, allowing themselves to be tempted by Satan. It is us who break the covenant; it is humanity who is responsible for the evil in this world. As John Murray argues, "The race has been confirmed in sin, condemnation, and death by Adam's trespass."31 The Scripture is also plain and clear that we all inherit Adam's sin (Romans 5:12), and we are all dead in sin (Eph 2:1, ESV). However, God's plan does not just end there. Notice how God executed His plan through His providence; the moment Adam sinned, God established another covenant in Gen 3:15. He said,
“I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel.” (ESV)
Here, though we see the very first evil that humanity committed, we can also see the limitless grace of God toward His creation. This promise of providing a Savior who will save us from this fallen world and the deadness of sin, and throughout the Old Covenant, there are glimpses and shadows of this promised seed. That is the very reason why I believe God decreed Joshua to destroy Jericho while sparing Rahab for the purpose of His covenant with the Israelites of entering the promised land, Canaan (Ex 6:4), and for the judgment of an evil nation. We may ask, why was Israel commanded to practice such complete destruction? David Guzik, in His commentary, which I agree with, says, "Because the greatest sins of the Canaanites were spiritual: When you come into the land which the Lord your God is giving you, you shall not learn to follow the abominations of those nations. There shall not be found among you anyone who makes his son or his daughter pass through the fire, or one who practices witchcraft, or a soothsayer, or one who interprets omens, or a sorcerer, or one who conjures spells, or a medium, or a spiritist, or one who calls up the dead. For all who do these things are an abomination to the Lord, and because of these abominations the Lord your God drives them out from before you. You shall be blameless before the Lord your God. For these nations which you will dispossess listened to soothsayers and diviners; but as for you, the Lord your God has not appointed such for you” (Deuteronomy 18:9–14).32
Evil in any form or shape must be judged righteously, and the God whom we worship is holy and just. If He is just, He has every right to impose judgment on anyone who violates His moral law (Psalm 7:11). However, we can also see the grace and mercy of God when He spared Rahab from destruction, who hid the Israelite spies. In His protection of Rahab, God providentially tied a scarlet cord, marking her household not to be destroyed (Joshua 2:18–21).
The sparing of Rahab was not by chance nor by accident, but was part of God’s plan and covenant. By His providence, God preserved Rahab, for she became the wife of Salmon, the father of Boaz, who was the great-grandfather of David, and an ancestor of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ according to the flesh (Matthew 1:5). This shows that throughout history, God’s providence is at work—not merely because He decreed it, but because, in the midst of evil, He has a covenant that He must keep. This is what is magnificent about our God: He is faithful, and He will always fulfill what He has promised (Hebrews 10:23).
Conclusion
In our introduction, we asked why God allowed innocent children to die. While it is true that children are innocent in terms of knowledge and intention to do evil, we cannot deny the fact that all people, including children, are sinners. David declared that he was brought forth in iniquity (Psalm 51:5; Psalm 58:3). This was confirmed when the Apostle Paul addressed the church in Rome, stating that we inherited Adam’s sinful nature (Romans 5:12).
The evil caused by sin is not beyond our God’s control; in fact, He provided a Savior. Sin brings death and suffering (Romans 6:23; James 1:15), and we deserve this punishment because we have sinned. However, the Lord, in His grace and mercy, provided a Savior, and that Savior is innocent, perfect, and without guilt (2 Corinthians 5:21; 1 Peter 2:22; 1 John 3:5).
He is the center of God’s decree of redemption; the Covenant of Grace all points to Him, and He is the greatest provision for the redemption of mankind. The Son of God—the Lord of lords and King of kings—the Innocent One, took the form of a servant (Philippians 2:5–8) and suffered the greatest evil in order to bring the greatest good to the guiltiest ones.33
To conclude this paper, I would like to suggest to everyone reading this: yes, evil exists and evil brings death. However, let us all remember that God is not passive; He is actively working. That is how sovereign God is. And if you realize how sinful you are, look to Christ. He is the ultimate Lamb whom God provided so that you may have life. Trust in Him.
References:
1 ‘Unimaginable Horrors,’ n.d., https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/unimaginable-horrors-more-50000-children-reportedly-killed-or-injured-gaza-strip .
2 Save the Children, n.d., https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/library/legacy-disastersthe-impact-climate-change-children.
3 B. Pfefferbaum, Children’s Disaster Reactions:, n.d., https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-015-0598-5.
4 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, “Evil,” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 3rd ed. (2007), https://ereader.perlego.com/1/book/1277676/32?element_originalid=s785.
5 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, “Providence of God,” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 3rd ed. (n.d.), https://ereader.perlego.com/1/book/1277676/32?element_originalid=s785.
6 John J Murray, Behind a Frowning Providence, n.d., 1.
7 Sam E. Waldron, “Of Divine Providence,” in Modern Exposition of 1689 London Baptist Confesion of Faith (Evangelical Press, n.d.).
8 Sam E. Waldron, “Of Divine Providence,” in Modern Exposition of 1689 London Baptist Confesion of Faith (Evangelical Press, n.d.).
9 John Gil, Exposition of the Bible, n.d., https://www.biblestudytools.com/commentaries/gills-exposition-of-the-bible/1-kings-22-34.html.
10 DARIUSZ ŁUKASIEWICZ, “DIVINE PROVIDENCE AND CHANCE IN THE WORLD,” in Annals of Philosophy (n.d.), https://www.jstor.org/stable/26934301.
11 ŁUKASIEWICZ, “DIVINE PROVIDENCE AND CHANCE IN THE WORLD.”
12 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, “Providence of God.”
13 Ernest Lucas, “God and Natural Evil,” in Faith and Thought (n.d.).
14 Ernest Lucas, “God and Natural Evil,” in Faith and Thought (n.d.).
15 Jerry Bridges, “God’s Power over Nature,” in Trusting God (Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 2008).
16 Environment, https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/energy-government-and-defense-magazines/rainfall.
17 Sam E. Waldron, “Of Divine Providence” (Evangelical Press, n.d.).
18 “God’ Continuing Work: Providence,” in Christian Theology, vol. 1 (Christian Growth Ministry, 1995).
19 Jerry Bridges, “God’s Power over Nature,” in Trusting God (Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 2008).
20 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, “Theodicy,” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 3rd ed. (n.d.), https://ereader.perlego.com/1/book/1277676/32?element_originalid=s785.
21 LAW, STEPHEN, The Evil-God Challenge, Religious Studies 46, 2010, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40927250.
22 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, “Evil.”
23 Sam E. Waldron, “Of Divine Providence” (Evangelical Press, n.d.).
24 Hasker, William, Providence and Evil: Three Theories, Religious Studies 28, no. 1, 1992, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20019525.
25 Hasker, William, Providence and Evil: Three Theories.
26 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, “Freedon, Free Will, and Determinism,” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 3rd ed. (n.d.), https://ereader.perlego.com/1/book/1277676/32?element_originalid=s785.
27 Gibbs, Benjamin, Can God Do Evil?, Philosophy 50, n.d., http://www.jstor.org/stable/3750056.
28 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, “Freedon, Free Will, and Determinism.”
29 Sam E. Waldron, “Of God’s Decree,” in Modern Exposition of 1689 London Baptist Confesion of Faith (Evangelical Press, n.d.).
30 Daniel J. Treier and Walter A. Elwell, “Covenant,” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 3rd ed. (n.d.), https://ereader.perlego.com/1/book/1277676/32?element_originalid=s785.
31 Sam E. Waldron, “Of the Fall of Men, of Sin, and of the Punishment Thereof,” in Modern Exposition of 1689 London Baptist Confesion of Faith (Evangelical Press, n.d.).
32 David Guzik, “Joshua 6 – Study Guide Commentary,” in Blue Letter Bible (n.d.).
33 “The Problem of Evil Part 6: The Greatest Evil & the Ultimate Good: Hebrews 2:10–18,” RMBC Media, n.d., https://rmbc-media.s3.amazonaws.com/documents/outlines/2013-05-19-greatest-evil-ultimate-good-1.pdf.